Knut Wik:
The Role of Museums in Image-Building and Development of Regions.
The mission of a museum is essentially cultural, but this is not the case for all museums. More precisely, museums may have many different roles. My perspective in looking at this issue is informed by both my position as a senior advisor to the regional authority in Sør-Trøndelag, Norway, dealing with museums and heritage questions, and as president of the Advisory Committee of the International Council of Museums (ICOM).
Let’s start with the definition of a museum. According to the ICOM Statutes
“A museum is a non-profit, permanent institution in the service of society and its development, open to the public, which acquires, conserves, researches, communicates and exhibits the tangible and intangible heritage of humanity and its environment for the purposes of education, study and enjoyment.”1
This definition refers to the international community, but nothing in it defines a role like that of today’s theme: image-building. Looking back at the history of museums, we see that they have always had different roles. Our museums have been, and still are, instruments:
when we want to build a nation
when empires want to show their greatness
in the creation of national and regional identity
when we want to attract more tourists to a city or region
Nowadays, museums must also be involved in creating our common future and be critical institutions, reflecting rapid changes in society. Our future must reflect our history, culture and traditions. It must meet global challenges like climate change, conflicts and wars around the globe – in a word: globalization.

Let us return to the main topic: How can museums play a role in image-building and the development of regions? We cannot ask this question without mentioning the Guggenheim Bilbao and the development of the city of Bilbao in the Basque region of north-eastern Spain. The decaying city of Bilbao decided in 1990 to spend 166 million Euros on a modern art museum for the purpose of reinvigorating the city’s economy. The politicians did this despite massive protests from citizens. Why spend so much money on a luxury while the city suffered from depression and unemployment? Of course, it’s necessary to add that the city also began to renew its infrastructure, and that it implemented economic and strategic redevelopment plans. The museum and cultural investments topped these off and were icing on the cake. 2 3 News about the success of Bilbao and the Guggenheim Museum spread immediately around the globe. Suddenly, Bilbao attracted up to a million foreign visitors a year and created 4000 new jobs in the hotel and restaurant sector. The recipe was obvious: to support the growth and development of a city and/or region we should top it off with a new museum or cultural institution. A landmark of spectacular architecture had to be created to attract new visitors and provide the tourist business with rapid growth towards heaven!
Yet despite the enthusiasm, we now see that some attempts to copy the Guggenheim-Bilbao example have ended up in bankruptcy. Bristol is one example of this. The Hamsun Center in Norway has also had severe economic problems. It does not help to put up a spectacular building in a village surrounded by amazing nature. The number of tourists coming to visit never ends up as high as that calculated in budgets.
Now, I have to admit that I was influenced by the success of Guggenheim Bilbao. I even created the following slogan in a project application:
“We must build a center for Archives, Libraries and Museums that can play the same role for our region as the Guggenheim has played for Bilbao!”
During this same period, the influence of professor Richard Florida’s theories on regional development were significant. Florida was on everybody’s lips. Silicon Valley in California was heaven, and “talent, technology, culture and tolerance” was the mantra for any region wanting to be creative. The book the Rise of the Creative Class was the Bible.4

In Trondheim, where I am from, we succeeded in becoming the host of the new national museum of rock and popular music, Rockheim. Rockheim opened last year and, luckily, it became a success. It’s now our number two attraction, second only to our gothic cathedral. Situated by the harbor front, the Rockheim-building with its amazing architecture has become a landmark. Inside, it’s full of technology and talented personnel. So far, it has not killed our economy, but there can be no talk of any Guggenheim-Bilbao effect either. In my opinion, Rockheim has contributed to improving our image. However, we must ask: What image are we trying to create? What is our official ambition? Here is the main headline:
“Our ambition is to develop Trøndelag into becoming a creative region, known for its generating powers and creativity.5”
We can clearly see both the Guggenheim-Bilbao and the Florida influences on our policy.
The International Council of Museums’ involvement in the development indicated has not been significant. Our role has been mostly one of over-viewing and supervising, and of asking questions and indicating when neoliberal thinking has gone too far. The ICOM Code of Ethics is based on the definition of a museum mentioned above. Museums sometimes run into ethical issues in attempting to fulfill their role as partners in the development of communities and regions. The core values of a museum can be challenged in dealings with business partners and political authorities.
Being in Yakutsk for a second time, it’s difficult for me to give you precise and good advice on the topic of image-building in the Sakha Republic. Everything depends on who you want to impress and how. You may have a need to strengthen your self-esteem or identity, to strengthen Sakha Republic’s position in Russia or, perhaps, to attract either foreign or Russian tourists.

The famous film-star Ewan McGregor and his colleague Charley Boorman crossed this whole continent on motorbikes. The year before I came here for the first time, I happened to read their book Long Way Around 6, which has been read by hundreds of thousands. After my visit in 2009, I re-read the lines they wrote about Yakutsk. They were not flattering, and I asked myself: Haven’t we been here, too? Seen in this light, you really do need to do something to strengthen your image.

Through the project Circumpolar Civilizations and World Museums, I became familiar with parts of the Sakha Republic in 2009. Personally, I fell in love with your landscape and culture. I’m representing the International Council of Museums and its president in this project. By now, the Sakha republic and my Yakutian partners in the project are well-known in the international museum-community for their initiatives focusing on arctic peoples and their cultures. You are the center of the circumpolar initiative. That’s a good image to have, and it’s strengthening Sakha’s international position in the field of culture and museums.

You have several good museums, and I’m sure they are each playing a role in creating a good image of Yakutia and in developing the region. This role can of course be made more important, but this depends on the efforts these museums are willing to make, as well as on what position and resources they are given. A Guggenheim-Bilbao copy may or may not be a solution for you. Nevertheless, pick the best from projects around the globe and see what you can learn from them! First and foremost, your museums must reflect the life of young people in Yakutia. They are your well-educated hope, and they will need inspiration and self-esteem to be good citizens in the future. They will need a positive identity in an increasingly diverse world.

1 ICOM Statutes, adopted during the 21st General Conference in Vienna, Austria, in 2007

2 Plaza, B.(2008) On Some Challenges and Conditions for the Guggenheim to be an Economic Re-activator. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 32, pp. 506-517

3 Ceballos, S.G (2004) The Role of the Guggenheim Museum in the development of urban entrepreneurial practices in Bilbao, IJIS 16, pp. 177-186

4 Florida, R, 2004: The Rise of the Creative Class: And How It's Transforming Work, Leisure, Community and Everyday Life

5 http://www.kreativetrondelag.no/Visjon-og-verdier/OUR-AMBITION-IS-TO-MAK...

6 Ewan McGregor and Charley Boorman, Long way around. Little, Brown Book Group, ill.(6 oktober 2005)

Discussing the Project "Circumpolar Civilization in the Museums of the World:
Yesterday,Today and Tomorrow. June 27, 2008. Loran Levi Stross, Material Culture
and Museums of UNESCO Department Director, Lubava Moreva, programming specialist
of UNESCO Bureau in Moscow


The portal «Circumpolar Civilization in Museums of the World: Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow» is created by the Arctic State Institute of Art and Culture (Yakutsk, Russia) at support of the Bureau of UNESCO in Moscow. Technical assistance is provided by the Centre of New Information Technologies of the Yakut State University (Yakutsk, Russia). Official opening was held on July 29th, 2009.

The creative group of the portal shares the values of UNESCO formulated in the Declaration on cultural variety, and is sure that a pledge of cultural variety is «freedom in saying opinions, pluralism of mass media, bilingualism, an equal access to opportunities for art creativity and to scientific and technical knowledge, including in the digital form, and providing all cultures with an access to means of expression and dissemination of ideas».
Cultural world of Arctic regions is entering the open information society of the 21st century as a unique lifestyle of the man who has created a local type of a human civilization which we have named Circumpolar. At first sight, the term Circumpolar Civilization seems to be a metaphor for those who are used to live in a comfortable environment and to think under the sky where the North Star is not visible. It is difficult to imagine how a warm-blooded man can survive in such conditions when the temperature falls down to -72 degrees Celsius in a white wilderness of Arctic regions. The portal evidently shows, how the Arctic man has survived and been creating his surrounding.
The world of the Arctic man has existed for millennia and proved height of spirit, will power, inexhaustible keenness of intelligence and aspiration to the beauty of a human soul. A local type of civilization has been created in the zone of Permafrost, eternal snow and ice. Circumpolar civilization extends around the North Pole and differs from other kinds of civilizations that here indigenous peoples have created the life adapted to natural and geographical conditions, which are distinguished by aggressive influence of a long severe cold and Arctic Night to biological characteristics of a human being.

At present cultural values of Arctic peoples acquired for millennia, appeared to be more saved in museum collections of different countries. And the museums have become a link between past, present and future generations of Arctic peoples. The International Association of Museums aims at increasing socio-cultural and ethno-cultural activities of museums which contain ethnographic collections of Circumpolar culture, thus, asserting ethnic pluralism, ecological values, tolerance and the right of mankind on cultural variety. Studying the past of Circumpolar culture we, probably, look in ethical values of eco-harmonious mankind.
The National Committee on Affairs of UNESCO of the Sakha Republic (Yakutia) headed by the First President of the Sakha Republic (Yakutia) M.E.Nikolaev has initiated the given project and begun its realization, involving all interested parties. We hope, that the portal will be claimed both by successors of Circumpolar peoples and by everyone who is interested in cultural variety and unity of mankind.

M.E. Nikolaev. The Present and Future of the Arctic Peoples

M.E. Nikolaev is the President of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia). This chapter is an extract (edited by S.A. Mousalimas) from his opening address to the International Conference on Languages, Cultures and Future of Arctic Peoples, Yakutsk, July 1993. The original address consists of three parts, one of which has been edited for inclusion in this book. Another part focuses on the revitalization and dissemination of the indigenous languages of the Arctic; and another part explains in more detail certain governmental proposals. The editor gratefully acknowledges O. von Sadovszky and ISTOR for assistance in travelling to this conference. (Editor's note.)
Existing within distinct environmental and historical conditions in the far northern regions, the cultures of the Arctic (regardless of their relative sizes) together comprise one of the richest culture groups in the world; and I disagree with the opinion of those academics who consider them to be 'relics', or 'primitive'. These ancient cultures include the richest experiences of work, creation and rec¬reation; and contain amazing experiences of adaptation to the most extreme conditions of existence in all manifestations of human life. Sturdy mechanisms of adaptation exist within the cultural characteristics of the indigenous peoples of the Arctic — in their traditional economies, clothing, foods, health-care, ethnopedagogy, arts, handicrafts and other customs — forming ways of life that can be employed for the rational development of the people of this region in the future. These represent a heritage from all previous generations as received by the modern residents here today; and there can be no doubt that the experiences retained from the deepest past into the present will remain significant in the future.
While adaptations have been unique within the Arctic ecology, yet the indigenous cultures of the Arctic testify also of the universal. The inner world of the human spirit (esthetics and imagination) is expressed through multifaceted elements in this severe environment. In this world of the human spirit (much more complex and richer than might be expected) the Arctic herders, hunters and fishermen knew the processes of creative work and revival, and participated in the achievements of world culture with the other peoples of the earth. The process of the development of human societies was occurring virtually simultaneously through the whole vast territory of Europe and Asia, between the Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans.

Protection, Continuity and Development
The cultures of the Arctic peoples in particular have become rather fragile, however, under the over-bearing conditions of the industrialized twentieth century. These are mainly cultures of minorities, and they require protection from the dominant mechanized-electronic civilization. This requirement exists similarly for minority peoples worldwide under current conditions; and as with these other peo¬ples, the problem in the Arctic is compounded by the complicated interrelationships between protection and support on the one hand and development on the other hand.
Although it might appear to a cursory observer that the cultures of the Arctic peoples are much the same, these cultures are actually different types, each unique from beginning to end. In the Russian Arctic, one of the largest groups at present is comprised of the Evenks and Evens of the Tungus-Manchurian branch. Other groups are the Khanty and the related Mansi; the Nenets; the Enth, and ethnically close to the Enth, the Nganasans. Living to the north of the Yakuts are the Yukaghirs. One of the most compact and numerous of the Northerners are the Chukchi. Then there are the Itel'men and the Koryaks. The mysterious Kets can be counted among the Arctic peoples as well, as can yet other groups. The northernmost cattle and horse breeders, the Yakuts (the people of Sakha), are also part of the system of the circumpolar cultures. The Sakha people and the Russian old-vein of people [narod sakha i russkie starozhily] have tremendously positive experiences here: they achieved unique interrelated economic structures that entered organically into the circumpolar culture area in comparatively short periods (something that cannot be said in general about the subsequent generations of explorers and exploiters of the North). Each is indeed a distinctly adapted Arctic people. Each has comprehended the severe conditions of nature here, and each has blended these conditions specially into a distinctive practical livelihood, distinctive traditions, a distinct identity.
Economies based on livestock breeding once predominated among them. Reindeer-breeding was the most adapted of these types, as it is organically connected to the Arctic conditions. It is characterized by the seasonal roaming of herds across the limits of certain natural habitats, according to environmental conditions such as the availability and quality of the pastures and the like. The routes for this roaming from place to place used to be less strictly regulated. They were determined 'in consent' with nature, and in accord with the previous experience of the people. This formed distinctive nomadic ways of life, and still would if they had not suffered wanton destruction from the modes of national social-economic development in this twentieth century.
The administrative-territorial divisions introduced in 1822 by the 'Rules for the Governance of the Non-Russians of Siberia', written by Count M.M. Speranskii, took into account the particularities of the particular ways of life of the indigenous peoples of the North. Accordingly the Evens, Evenks, Yukaghirs, Chukchi and others were included in the category of nomadic peoples [chislo kochevykh narodov]. Those who were hunters and fishermen were ascribed further as so-called 'migrant' peoples [brodyachie]. This can serve as evidence that Russia took the particularities of the ways of life of the Arctic peoples into account in her national policy.
During the twentieth century however, a policy was instituted for abrupt change, particularly a change from the nomadic to a settled mode of life. The policy became most acute with collectivization: a fallacy which allotted vast territories to the state land fund, and which negatively influenced the Northerners' traditional cultural-economic complex. While we cannot ignore the positive features of a state policy that, with its best aspirations, made many efforts and allotted substantial means for the development of the indigenous peoples of the North in general, and those of Yakutia in particular; yet the mistakes should be taken into account also. Without this constructive analysis of the Soviet period, it will be unreasonable to attempt prospects for the future adaptation and social development of the indigenous peoples of the North. The northern nomadic peoples suffered wanton destruction when, by policy, they were settled in villages.
Also of special interest is the Yakut cattle-breeding culture which had it own naturally settled way of life. While its origins are surely related to other Euro-asiatic cattle-breeding traditions, and while it does share some similarities with the so-called alpine, or mountain, cattle-breeding; this northern (Yakut) type gained a separate form from those in regions with milder climates. It differs even from the Buryat, Tuva and Khakass types. The difference can be traced to the form of pasture that predominates here and the differing modes of production of fodder. (It may be interesting to note that the Yakut people differ from the races of southern Siberia and Central Asia in genetic respects as well.) By the seventeenth century, Yakut cattle-breeding was dispersed through the Arctic with unique breeds of horned cattle and of horses, and with other distinctive features that fit well into these severe climatic conditions. This northern form of live-stock breeding also suffered as a foreign, 'modern' economic system was imposed on it by the state. The main principles of the indigenous social-economic traditions were destroyed or seriously deformed if they could not be drawn into the state reforms. The distinct identities and languages were ruined along with the traditional economies of the indigenous peoples of the Arctic. Ethnic communities [etnosi] were torn away from the indigenous basis of their vital activity.
Upon the indigenous basis, adaptations of cultural-economic complexes were already taking place through time, as was the formation even of new ethnic groups [etnosi]; and the adapted complexes and the new groups were becoming natural parts of the circumpolar world themselves. Most remarkable is the formation of a newethnos, the Dolgans, who comprise about 6,000 people now. Ethnically (by language and mode of life), they are the result of a mixture of such peoples as the Sakha, Evens, Evenks, Nenets and Russians who lived on the tundra.
Processes for successful, creative adaptation are intrinsic within the cultures of the Arctic peoples. The development of the North must take these cultures of the indigenous peoples into consideration. The rich heritage of the Arctic peoples — the Evens, Evenks, Yukaghirs as well as the Russian old-settlers, Yakuts (Sakha), and others; whether nomadic herders, settled herders, or peripatetic hunters and fishermen; all distributed over such a vast expanse of territory and through such a considerable expanse of time — is greatly important now and holds magnificent prospects. The Arctic's nomadic world itself contains unique productive forms of economy that with a proper approach has a tremendous potential. One of the main political as well as ecological goals must be a well-thought prospect for the preservation of these traditional forms of economy within the specificity of the ecology, and an intelligent use of these cultural traditions for careful development in the future.
Unity and Diversity
Two interconnected tendencies can be identified in the ethnic processes today. More easily recognized is the formation of an encompassing national identity and culture [sovremennoi natsional'noi kulturi] from the various ethno-social communities in this immense territory. This process was exacerbated by the earlier state's imposed reforms, so that ethnic peculiarities of everyday material life have faded into an increasingly mechanized and urban-based culture. But this tendency in Yakutia remains characterized by a substantial originality nonetheless, that can be explained by dual factors: firstly by the unique environment, especially the massive expanse of territory through which the indigenous peoples are dis¬persed (no other nationalities in the world are distributed through such immense territories as are the peoples of the Arctic); and secondly by the predominance of the Yakut population along with the Russian population here. These factors render the tendency toward unification (as well as all the aspects of socio-economic life) among autochthonous peoples of the republic — the Yukaghirs, Chukchi, Evens and Evenks — unique among the minorities of the North.
The other tendency exists as each internal nation and people [kazhdoi natsii i narodnosti] is endeavouring to unite itself and to revitalize its distinctive identity. What is the relationship between this diversity on the one hand and increasing national unity on the other hand? These distinct ways of life — each dynamic — can be mutually affective and mutually reinforcing. Historically on the whole, both settled and nomadic ways of life co-existed. These cultural-economic systems of the Arctic did not function separately in opposition to each other. This should be kept in mind. The northern form of cattle-breeding occupied a zone apart from reindeer-breeding; yet the settled cattle-breeding did not become an exclusive form of economy opposed to the nomadic reindeer-breeding, or vice versa, as is evident from the history of the interactions between the indigenous peoples of the North. The same can be said about the relationships with the hunters-and-fishermen.
We observe an interaction with, and a mutual enrichment of these cultures by, each other within the strict regulations imposed on each through the particular realities of nature and climate here. Within this specific environment, one lives by necessity in unity with others. The spirit of mutual support and mutual aid is especially developed here in the interacting system of circumpolar cultures by ne¬cessity within these severe conditions. Interspersed in this environment over the vast extent of this territory, they must, indeed they do, interact and cooperate. And in this way within this ecological niche here in the North, a 'nous-sphere' (a distinctive spiritual world) has developed; distinctive ethno-psychological norms for behaviour have matured: a northern type of person has steadily been formed. Much could be written about this. This influenced the old settlers; it has even influenced many people who have worked for long periods of time recently in industries under these northern conditions (which is why some of the retired pensioners who once departed have returned, although they may not be entirely aware of the influence).
The example of the penetration of the cattle-breeding culture of the Sakha people (the Yakuts) into the northern regions can be taken further. Through the introduction of a cattle-breeding culture, the already established autochthonous cultures did not disappear; but on the contrary, the cattle-breeding culture was itself transformed, giving birth to a new, adapted complex that became an integral part of the system of circumpolar cultures. These settled cattle-breeding people may have influenced the autochthonous nomadic herding peoples as well as the autochthonous hunting and fishing peoples in various ways through various eras; but in turn they influenced them. I believe this experience in the development of the Sakha must be studied very closely, so that it may be employed as a paradigm for the future in the Arctic.
Each of these cultures explored the possibilities of the vast territory of the North separately while influencing each other. And each of these ethnic-unities — while creating a unifying identity with each other — can well seek and discover its own ways to an efficient economy.
Prospects
Measures adopted by the Sakha Republic (Yakutia) for the reconstruction, preservation, and development of traditional forms of economy are productive at the initial levels of this endeavour; and we shall further unite our efforts to advance in a direction that will give the peoples of the Arctic the real opportunity not only to exist but to search out ways of development. We are ready to cooperate constructively with other countries in this endeavour.
The Supreme Soviet of the Sakha Republic (Yakutia) has adopted a law on the 'Nomad Tribal Community of Minorities of the North'. Designed for the revival of their life and life-styles, this law provides for the unencumbered national development of the nomadic tribal peoples. They have received legislative recognition, received forms of property, and have become an equal part of the economic system. As they have received legal status for national and ethnic development, their folk traditions, languages and literature are reviving. With rights for long-term use of the land their life-styles, including traditional occupations and trades, are being restored. This law makes these communities responsible for preserving the ecological balance in nature through a rational use of natural, biological and other resources; and agreements are being made for natural resources with these users of the land. The law has begun to work well for the inhabitants of the Arctic. Already more than thirty tribal communities have been formed. This is only the beginning.
It may be worthwhile in the near future to recreate cultural and economic zones that derive from within the environment (the climate and landscape), instead of being imposed on it as in the near past. If this might spoil the functioning of some existing administrative and territorial units, then we ought to seek a way out of the impasse imposed by these administrative structures. In our view, a mechanism of optimal land tenure should be worked out. Once and for all, we should give land to its actual users, not to its exploiters; so that humanity may, once again, become the very basis for institutions, however powerful these institutions may become. We should decline the suggestion for a state land fund in the Arctic. The suggestion was meant to create work for various bureaus; but the traditional northern forms of economy, and the social structures of the indigenous populations, do not accept such artificial administrative differentiations. Even the Tsarist government realized this: they never violently interfered with the natural course of the ethno-so-cial processes.
On the other hand, the establishment of national regions and districts will not serve as a panacea either. This has become clear with the establishment of the first native Even region (Eveno-Bytan-taysky) which has already caused difficulties (although they have been kept in the shadows, or been deliberately ignored). Artificially distinguishing the Tyukesyr and Lamynkhyn groups of Evens of West Verkhoyan has not been effective. Towards a viable solution a new scientific approach should prevail, one which was not employed in the preliminary work of establishing such regions. It may prove desirable to have a single coordinating centre with branches in and from the Russian Academy of Sciences, as well as the agriculture and technological academies: a special body — an All Russia Council of the Arctic Territories — consisting of representatives of the northern regions, districts, krays and okrugs, founded by and attached to the President of the Russian Federation.
We should appreciate the participation of the government of the Russian Federation in charter capital to provide an administration, and furthermore a real fund for a program on the basis of a closed joint-stock and financial company with the participation of Russian and foreign investors. The sooner we act, the less will be required from state sources. The legendary Arctic can be turned from a zone requiring expenditure into the catalyst for progress in all spheres of life; and this rebirth of the Northern peoples of the Arctic zone with their accumulated experience and their beautiful traditions will be for the renovation of all of Russia.
The problem requiring the most urgent solution here in the Arctic is ecological, due to the destruction of the environment. This is more important even than any of the social cataclysms while both spheres are intimately related. The traditional forms of economy entirely depend on the ecological system, and the destruction of both has escalated together. The circumpolar zone is rich with mineral resources; but the exploration of this wealth has been careless, chaotic. It drove us to the point where there was no place even for the Arctic cultures.
This urgent task for revival and careful development in the Arctic has been prompted by a concern for life itself. This task will ultimately be fulfilled by the people of the Arctic. They who will bring the Arctic to revival are her people. A viable program for national-ethnic revival must provide properly for their training. We should hope that this training will be taken under special authority of the subarctic states; because the existing regional institutions of higher education are inadequate for this specialized task. In my opinion, it is necessary to establish specialized centres for training at, for instance, the State University at Yakutsk, the University of Alaska at Fairbanks, and various institutions in Canada and the USA. We are ready to undertake such activity.
As we enter the twenty-first century, an imperative exists for us to discover rational ways for development of the Arctic — for social, economic, spiritual, political and legal development here in the homeland of so many peoples and nations. It shall be necessary to study the 'ethno-ecological' dynamics of these people who brought about a harmonious system of interrelations between man and nature, to preserve these dynamics and to allow these people to develop them. By creating a new social and political outlook, and by strengthening the economic independence of this region, we will carefully break through into the future: to a new status in society for the peoples of the Arctic and to a secure identity for them in the world. This is a task of renewal by mankind living in the most severe conditions for the sake of the future of all humanity.